Historical Background:
Renaissance, Reformation, Catholic Counter-Reformation © Susan
Fleck
1)
Dark Ages: c. 400
– 14th Century (following decline of
a)
Relative scarcity
of historical records; lack of literature; limited building & cultural
achievements
b)
Philosophers were
Catholic Church Theologians
2)
Augustine of
Hippo (354-430) (Saint): Wrote City of
a)
Theologian:
profoundly influenced medieval worldview
b)
Many think
Augustine has been the most
influential person in
c)
Influenced by Neo-Platonists;
Influenced later Church Reformers
d)
Originated
doctrine of Original Sin: (Sin of
i)
Making humanity a
mass of perdition, condemned
ii)
Enfeebles, but
does not destroy, Freedom of Will
iii)
Doctrine
confirmed by numerous Church Councils & Popes
e)
Confessions,
a hyper-reflexive autobiography details his search for Truth
i)
Created a culture
becoming aware of an inner life
ii)
Via
iii)
Skeptics
position: it is NOT valid to assume the mind can figure things out
iv)
Augustine’s
agonizing search for Truth and Certainty: the True understanding of faith
f)
Platonists views
paralleled Ideas from Scripture
i)
Scriptures can map onto true philosophy
ii)
Augustine has a
Mystical Conversion: then lives a life of service to the Church
g)
On the Trinity:
addresses doctrine of Trinity – debates had gone on for decades
i)
Regarding nature
and relationship of God, Jesus, and Holy Spirit
h)
Free Will: man
must choose God at each instant in time
i)
Constant choosing
makes relationship with God tighter
i)
Develops view
moving toward that of predestination
j)
This life is full
of misery – Be thankful for your Will to have a relationship with God;
You can look forward to a Blissful life in Eternity after death
i)
A predominant
world view in Western World during medieval centuries following Augustine
3)
Saint Thomas
Aquinas (1225-1274): Father of Thomistic school of thought
a)
Summa Theologica: Much of modern philosophy is in response to Thomas; very influential
b)
Emphatically
Aristotelian: Aristotle’s works ‘arrived’ in Latin by this time; wrote
commentaries
c)
Sought to
reconcile Aristotle’s philosophy with Augustinian theology (based in Platonism)
d)
Averroes (Ibn
Rushd, 1126-1198): Aristotelian philosopher & commentator; Islamic philosopher
& theologian; polymath
i)
Islamic scholars
had same problem: Aristotle was ‘telling the truth,’ but this was inconsistent
with teachings of Islam (and Christianity)
ii)
Catholic Church:
alarmed by Averroists
e)
Double Truth
Theory ascribed by Averroes & Aquinas: One and the same Truth is understood
clearly in philosophy
and expressed allegorically in theology
i)
Aquinas agrees
with Averroes: only a few would come to God by the light of reason
ii)
But one can use reason to grasp the truth about
God and Salvation:
Reason is natural revelation (using
philosophical, logical, reasoning)
f)
Thomism comes and
goes, in and out of approval, by Church through the centuries following
(e.g., 1962-65 Council dethroned Thomas; 1998 John Paul II reaffirmed Thomas’
importance)
g)
General theme:
“Faith builds on reason, And grace builds on nature.”
The world was created with genuinely operative causes and powers; Man’s natural
reason is one of these powers (to learn about nature and about God).
4)
Dark/Middle Ages
(450-1350): Thousand years of stagnation; No significant advances; lost
knowledge of ancient Greeks and Romans; Feudal system – masses were serfs;
Masses were illiterate – education mainly for Monks; Life expectancy avg. early
20s
5)
Renaissance
(French word: rebirth): Began in
a)
Reinvention
of civilization and ideals of Classical Greece and
b)
Culture,
learning, etc. was still going on during medieval period (slowly),
but the sudden explosion in
c)
6)
Early
Renaissance: c. 1425-1500
a)
Northern Italy:
i)
Contact with
other societies: commercial and cultural exchanges
ii)
Arab scholars had
preserved and commented on ancient Greek texts
b)
Exploration of
c)
Science &
Technology developments (incl. navigation)
d)
Printing press
(1455): HUGELY significant
e)
f)
Emphasis on Humanism
and rational thought (reason)
7)
Cosimo de’ Medici
(1389-1464): guilds ruling
a)
Medici family:
most powerful, due to Cosimo’s skills as tactician and businessman
b)
Huge fortune:
used for political power and financing art projects in
c)
First public
library: classics – works of Plato and Aristotle
8)
Lorenzo (Medici)
the Magnificent: Cosimo’s grandon; a poet and musician; he lived ‘grandly’
a)
Sponsored much
art and literature: massive effect on Renaissance
i)
Patron to, e.g., Leonardo, Michelangelo, Donatello
b)
Started academies
that reexamined philosophical ancient works
i)
Four Humanist
philosophers were under patronage of the Medici family
c)
Spent Medici
fortune! Medici Bank on verge of bankruptcy by time of his death
9)
Five Major
Currents during Italian Renaissance: Classical Humanism; Humanistic Platonism;
Renaissance Individualism; Scientific Naturalism; Humanistic Aristotelianism
10)
Classical
Humanism: (Protagoras (490-420 bc): “Man is the measure of all things.”)
a)
Belief in the
worth and dignity of the individual
b)
Celebrated human
reason and physical beauty
c)
Francesco
Petrarch (1304-1372): Father of Humanism: Learning is key to living a virtuous
life
d)
Classics of
Greeks and Romans represent highest level of human achievement
i)
Translated into
Latin & Italian during 1400s; Italian scholars benefitted from Arab
scholars
ii)
Printing press
(1455): Greek learning spread rapidly
11)
Humanistic
Platonism: Platonic
a)
Focus on
humanistic, artistic, imaginative Plato
b)
Marsilio Ficino,
leader: God is made manifest to humans through Beauty
i)
Contemplation of
beauty is a form of worship: Spiritual love (beauty) leads to union with God
ii)
Florentines-
spiritually bound together in common love of the beautiful (artists thrived!)
12)
Renaissance Individualism: Pico della Mirandola
(1463-1494): Oration on the Dignity of
Man
a)
Philosopher at
the Platonic Academy
b)
Humans are a link
between lower forms and spiritual forms
c)
For individuals,
destiny is a matter of choice; there are no limits; Free Will: one must choose;
one can descend to level of the beasts or rise to status of higher (divine)
beings
d)
Geniuses
flourished as never before; artists inspired – e.g. Botticelli, Michelangelo,
Raphael, etc.
e)
The Arts: desire
for prestige for both patrons and artists; artists became famous, signed work
i)
Competitions for
commissions; Many people wanted permanent monuments to themselves
ii)
Quality/number of
portraits increased dramatically; self-portraits of artists included in work
(1)
Human figures
became personal and individual (rather than stylized abstractions)
iii)
Biographies of
artists written by others, or autobiographies
f)
Renaissance Man:
ideal of the universal man: strove to
become excellent in many fields
13)
Scientific
Naturalism: Scientific spirit of free inquiry in all aspects of life
a)
Close partnership
between Art and Science: Architects became mathematicians; Sculptors became
anatomists;
Painters became geometricians (perspective); Musicians became acousticians
14)
Humanistic
Aristotelianism:
a)
In
b)
In
i)
Allied with
already flourishing scientific movement and with Humanism
ii)
Had no reason to
reject any of Averroes as commentator
15)
a)
Black Death,
1347-1351 (in about five years), 25% to 50% dead throughout
i)
Once infected, it
took one to five days before death!
ii)
Bubonic type
(spread by infected fleas); pneumonic type – spread by breathing air of victim
b)
100 Years War:
c)
By 1430:
i)
Overall political
authority: Holy Roman Emperor: his duty- defend territorial integrity
ii)
Political
struggle between HRE and the Church of Rome
iii)
Rising tide of
national movements
d)
Manorialism:
Cooperation and mutual obligations between King and Lords (Vassals); Lords and
Knights (Vassals): Knights and Peasants (Serfs)
i)
A Fief, often
land, could be revenue, is granted by a King to a Lord, or Lord to his vassals,
in return for allegiance and military aid
ii)
Serfs were in
condition of modified slavery; they worked the land, forests, mines, crafts,
in exchange for protection, food, and shelter
e)
Commercial
center: gradually shifting from Mediterranean ports to those of
i)
Society also
shifting away from feudal system
ii)
Rapid growth of
northern cities
iii)
Italian
Renaissance ideas come northward via trade and commerce
iv)
But no revival of
classical antiquity as in
f)
North trend:
increased awareness of nature: fascinated with what the human eye could see,
what the mind could comprehend, and what the heart could feel (all reflected in
their Art)
g)
Universities:
humanists and scientists “freer” (less scrutiny and control from the Church)
16)
Protest and
Reform in
a)
Old Order:
Catholic Church & secular arm:
b)
Throughout
history: when a particular group is in power, it tries to maximize and maintain
power
c)
Catholic Church:
Absolute Power
i)
Religious Power-
over scripture, dogma, services, infallibility of the Pope
ii)
Secular Power –
based on Matthew 16:18-19
(1)
Jesus builds church
upon ‘the rock’ (Peter); hands keys of heaven to Peter:
“whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven . . . “
(2)
Peter passes to
Bishops of Rome his privileged position in the Church
(3)
Apostolic
succession (Popes’ lineage traced back to apostles)
(4)
Pope Gregory VII
in 1090: Church has final say in all maters, spiritual and secular
d)
Humanists of
North: more open & objective about criticism of the Church
i)
Reexamined
original documents of Church fathers: more emphasis on these for ‘truth’
instead of Classical writings of antiquity
ii)
Goal: to purify
Christianity & the Bible of errors: created new translations
e)
Focused on abuses
of the Church, Popes, Clergy
f)
New merchant
class (Bourgeoisie) resented wealth going to
i)
Church owned
large amounts of land; paid no taxes
g)
Renaissance
Papacy (1450-1520); general consensus was: Popes involved too much in politics
& Art;
they lived extravagant lives, often sinful
h)
Dissenter: one
who refuses to accept doctrines or usages of established church
i)
Early dissenters
did not want to break from Church; they wanted reforms
ii)
John Wycliffe
(1328-1384), English philosopher/theologian: Against clerical ownership of
land;
Church should not have papal jurisdiction in secular affairs
(1)
Translation of
Bible into English: wanted individuals to read Bible
(2)
Rejected all
ceremony & organization not specifically mentioned in Bible (most all!)
(3)
Immoral &
corrupt Popes, Bishops, Priests should give up positions
iii)
Jan Hus
(1372-1415), Bohemian Monk: gave church members wine during communion
(1)
Convicted as
heretic, burned at stake: civil unrest ensues
(a)
Pope raises
150,000 man army; Crusades against
iv)
Desiderius
Erasmus (1466-1536), Dutch Monk/Priest, trained in the Classics
(1)
His own
translation of New Testament, and wrote Satire: In Praise of Folly (very popular)
i)
Movable Type
Printing Press, 1450: Johannes Gutenberg,
i)
Hand copy of
Bible took about 3 years
ii)
Reform material
can be printed cheaply and in large numbers; no longer limited to elite few
j)
William Tyndale
(1493-1546), English: Translated Bible into English – martyred
k)
Martin Luther
(1483-1546), German: Salvation comes from faith alone; not good works
i)
Ninety-five Theses, Oct. 31, 1517: Symbolic start of Protestant Reformaton
(1)
Against ‘letters
of pardon’ purchased from priests; payment in lieu of pilgrimages, purchase of
indulgences, etc. etc.
(2)
Salvation could
not be earned by good works or through grace of Church.
(If Pope really could grant indulgences, they should be granted at no cost.)
(3)
Salvation is
achieved through Christ’s sacrifice and God’s grace; not influenced by anything we as humans do
ii)
Translated Bible
into German (standardized German language)
iii)
Huge following:
movement literally shook foundations of Western world: grew rapidly
iv)
His ultimate legacy:
people began reading & interpreting Scripture for themselves
(1)
That, in turn,
caused different Protestant sects to develop: various interpretations
l)
Ulrich
Zwingli (1484-1531):
i)
Simple Theology:
Interpret Bible literally:If Bible does not explicitly say something, no
Christian should believe or practice it (and vice versa)
ii)
Problem: most
scholars think much of Bible is allegorical
iii)
Radical shift
impacting social life (very strict adherence)
m)
Anabaptists: Baptism at ‘age of reason’: No oaths, no gov’t
participation; passive obedience
i)
Anabaptist
Movements led to Mennonites, Amish, Pietists, Unitarians, Hutterites
n)
John
Calvin (1509-1564):
i)
Zwingli
literalism also applied to society/government: Set up Theocracy in
ii)
Predestination:
Church of the ‘Elect’
iii)
Perhaps more
influential than Luther: patterns & thought to dominate Western culture
& social organization of English colonies (
(1)
Calvinism (
17)
a)
1337-1453: 100
and 16 Years Wars with
b)
1455-1487: War of
Roses: Result – First Tudor King (Henry VII); two houses unite via marriage
c)
Catholic country,
but affected by five religious movements: Lutherans, Calvinists, Anabaptists,
Humanists,
and Catholics (majority)
d)
Switching
religions back and forth was driven by political policies & new
Kings/Queens
e)
After Elizabeth
I: three main groups: Catholics, Puritans, 3rd group – Book of
Common Prayer
f)
English Civil
War, 1642-1651: Religion played a large role
i)
3rd
group became core of Church of England
18)
(Slides of list
of Christian Denominations Today)
19)
The Catholic
Counter-Reformation (CCR)
a)
Catholic Church
feels pressure from reformers; Begin losing groups of people; then cities (
b)
Realize steps
need to be taken to regain lost members and retain those still loyal
c)
Reformation is
series of actions lasting about 100 years to counteract Protestant Reformation
i)
CCR began with
the Council of Trent (1545-1563) & ended after Thirty Year’s War (1648)
d)
CCR goals:
Eliminate abuses; Re-clarify doctrine; Restore discipline; win (back) converts
i)
Council of
(1)
works, Purgatory,
pilgrimages, Apocrypha, 7 sacraments
(2)
Rejected all
compromise with Protestants
ii)
Discipline/Control:
extreme censorship (Index); seminaries; Bishops local involvement
iii)
Inquisitional
Tribunal (
iv)
Religious Orders
& Mystics (e.g. Jesuits)
v)
Missionary zeal
outpaced protestants; 700 schools
vi)
Political/Religious
Wars:
(1)
1562-1598: French
nobles versus Huguenots
(2)
(3)
(a)
Involved most of
vii)
CCR:
20)
Lasting effects
of European Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation
a)
b)
Old orders were
under attack from new ideas and new systems
c)
Social and
political upheaval will lead to radical change in the 17th and 18th centuries