Philosophy
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Philosophy Essays (& other stuff)
Suzi's Essay Abstracts - page 2 Aristotle on Eudaimonia: Dominant End or Inclusive Aggregate? Some writers claim that Aristotle has presented eudaimonia as being a dominant end of purely contemplative activity, rather than being inclusive —a plurality, or composite, of all intrinsic goods. Some declare that Aristotle’s eudaimonia represents an active, political (social) and virtuous life, while others think it is a life of philosophy—a life lived for the sake of contemplation. I discuss these differing views: I argue that Aristotle’s position in The Nichomachean Ethics is that eudaimonia is comprised of a dominant aim, while at the same time includes other intrinsic goods. Eudaimonia is the pursuit of the dominant role of contemplation, or the life of a philosopher: this kind of life subsumes the roles of the virtues and other intrinsic goods such as amenities and friendships. I intend to demonstrate that Aristotle has presented us with a rational doctrine of eudaimonia and it is not filled with inconsistencies or indecision. Aristotle on Ultimate Happiness. "I'm so happy!" This is what you would expect to hear from someone who had e.g. just been married; had their first baby; bought a new home or car; graduated from college; landed the job they wanted; etc. To be happy - is this just a fleeting, momentary event or feeling-related thing? Or - can one expect to achieve "happiness", a more permanent 'state' of being which is not just tied to a specific celebration in life? This paper will explore Aristotle's view on the 'ultimate' happiness - why we must plan for it, what it really is, and how his view conforms to his view of man's basic nature. A Framework for Personal Identity.. Philosophers throughout the ages have offered ideas about what constitutes one's sense of personal identity. In many cases, logic used to support these ideas are based on science fiction "puzzle cases." For example: What if you were on Mars and the only way to return to Earth was via a teletransporter that could duplicate each molecule in your body and brain back on earth. Would YOU be that newly created 'clone' on earth, or that person left on Mars - or both? This paper, with accompanying chart, proposes that we take a more comprehensive approach to this difficult subject. It imposes a framework with which to analyze many different aspects of Personal Identity. Carnap on Empiricism, Semantics, and Ontology. Rudolf Carnap deals with the implications of accepting language which refers to abstract entities in his paper "Empiricism, Semantics, and Ontology." This paper is a sort of "book report" about Carnap's paper, with a discussion about Carnap's proposed framework, physical objects (things), propositions, designation, empiricism and the problem of proof. A Glimpse at Taoism. This small essay is my interpretation of chapter 34 of the "Tao-te Ching." This one small passage provides essential insight into Taoism by answering these basic questions: (1) What is the nature of the Tao? (2) What is its relationship with others? and (3) How should one conduct himself accordingly? Confucius on Jen. Confucius' whole system of ethics is based upon what is the nature of the human being, and a major portion of the Analects is devoted to the subject of jen. Herbert Fingarette thinks that the Western world has interpreted the Analects in a primarily humanistic manner and misses the central theme which shows a holiness in human existence and magical power as the very essence of human virtue. This short essay is a discussion about the nature of humanity within Confucianism. The First Emperor. Ch'in Shih Huang Ti, The First Emperor, in 210 B.C. was buried under an earth mound 15 stories high called Mount Li. The workmen who installed the finishing touches were buried alive to ensure the secret of the entranceway died with them. Less than a mile from this is where peasant diggers stumbled on a huge subterranean vault - where the emperor's guardian army of 6,000 life-size terracotta men and horses were created 2,200 years ago. About 700,000 forced laborers worked 36 years on this, which is being acclaimed the "Eighth Wonder of the World." Several hundred thousand laborers were used to build one of Shih Huang Ti's legendary palaces, which was so immense it could hold 10,000 people. What are the factors which made such a man as Shih Huang Ti and such enormous building and funeral projects possible? This paper will briefly outline important aspects of Shih Huang Ti, the emerging historical factors preceding his reign, and will focus on the philosophical aspects which influenced his life. Beyond Ethical Egoism. In his article, Egoism and Moral Skepticism, James Rachels presents some convincing arguments exposing the weakness of both the psychological egoism and ethical egoism positions. However, his paper is fraught with problems. I intend to reveal the weaknesses in Rachels’ arguments, and will expose his gross distortion of Ayn Rand’s view. Along the way, I will compare classical ethical egoism with Rand’s “rational-selfishness”, and demonstrate that her views withstand Rachel’s objections. I will show how Rand can take us beyond ethical egoism while bypassing the lure of altruism. Meno's Paradox.. Meno, wasting no time with small talk, asks Socrates, ‘can virtue be taught?’ If he knew Socrates at all, he should have been prepared for the ‘come back’ question of ‘what is virtue?’ Some think Socrates, in the Meno, has taken us on a grand ride, has shown us a lot of interesting things, but has left off where we started, without having answered the questions. I think he did not explicitly answer the questions because he thinks these kinds of questions must ultimately be answered by each person for himself - i.e. each person must come to an understanding of this kind of knowledge through his own effort. While these questions were not answered per se, I don’t think Socrates merely took us in a circle to drop us off at the starting gate. By answering Meno’s paradox, Plato bolstered the Socratic method of inquiry and he took issue with the prevailing Sophistry. Through his dialogue in the Meno, this paper explores Plato’s ideas that knowledge is obtained through an arduous process of inquiry by which one recollects what is within one’s soul to begin with. I then examine the correctness of this theory by contrasting it briefly with another general theory of how we come to the understanding of concepts, i.e., universals, and knowledge. The Problem of Cartesian Dualism. Descartes had two ultimate goals which he was sure would literally change the course of mankind and alter the whole body of knowledge taught in the Schools. First, he wanted to establish a new method to have the means to discover and know the one truth about each thing or problem being examined. To this goal he applied mathematical principles which he felt offered absolute certainty in resolving problems. Second, because current 'philosophy' offered no assured foundations, and since the rest of the sciences were built upon 'shifting sands', he needed to establish some basic principles: He felt this was the most important thing in the world. In fundamental ways, Descartes did change the course of mankind - for philosophic debate and for very practical scientific results. This paper will discuss - 1) the background and a brief description of the fundamental principles Descartes discovered; 2) emphasize his views on the relationship of the mind to the body; 3) the one major flaw he left unresolved in dealing with the mind / body; 4) how the philosophers Spinoza, Leibniz and Hume were concerned with this problem; 5) and how they dealt with it in the context of their metaphysical or epistemological frameworks. Behaviorism and Identity Theory. There are two main twentieth century, monist theories dealing with the philosophy of the mind in answer to the Cartesian Dualism problem - Behaviorism and Modern Materialism, or the Identity Theory. Both of these theories have the advantage of bringing the mind from the 'realm of the hidden'. This paper explores what factors motivated these theories, their advantages in solving the mind / body dichotomy, and the problems with these views. Which ship--X or Y--is the Spirit of Athens? The Spirit of Athens is composed of 1000 sound and seaworthy oak planks. One day, however, its owner—Theseus by name—instructs a shipwright to replace the oak planks with ones made of teak.. "Not to worry," says the shipwright, "My crack crew can get the job done in 1000t hours." But when Theseus has gone, the wily shipwright thinks to himself, "There's no point in letting the oak planks go to waste." With this thought in mind, then, he instructs his crew that the oak planks which they are replacing with teak planks in dry-dock A should be reassembled, plank for plank, in dry-dock B. And so it comes to pass. This story ends with two ships, one in Dock A—call it Ship X—and the other in Dock B—call it Ship Y. And now we are finally ready for our puzzle: Which ship, X or Y, if either, is Theseus's ship, the Spirit of Athens? Our question, in short, is a question about identification. Aristotle in the Medieval Era. For Christians, “right” belief is so crucially important and erroneous belief, or heresy, is so terrifying. The difference between them, as Norman Melchert points out, is heaven and hell, thus making belief choices intensely personal and of ultimate consequence. This paper will explore how the medieval era philosophers dealt with the so-called dichotomy of faith versus reason. It will show the major role that Aristotle had in the various attempts to harmonize reason with faith, and how conflicts between Aristotelian and Christian doctrines became a major issue within the Church. The leading philosophers and theologians of the thirteenth century were all associated with the University of Paris, which played a leading role in the intellectual expression and defense of Christianity. The spread of Aristotelian doctrines within these walls were in conflict with Christianity. The (Catholic) Church took measures to protect their faithful from heresies spawned from Aristotelian doctrines. In 1210 the Council of Paris forbade the teaching of Aristotle’s ‘natural philosophy’, although it continued to order the study of his logic, and study of his Ethics was not forbidden. The Pope in 1231 went so far as to appoint a commission of theologians to correct the prohibited books of Aristotle. Augustine Overcomes Materialism. “Since nothing in existence could exist without you [God], does it therefore follow that everything that exists must contain you? I too exist. Why then do I ask you to enter into me? For unless you were in me, I could not exist . . . . Or where can you come from to enter into me? . . . . You fill the heaven and the earth. Do they therefore contain you?” These were some of the typical questions that Augustine was struggling with, that, indeed, many of us ask in our lifetime. One of Augustine’s main battles was confronting and eliminating his assumption of a materialist view of the universe. This paper explains why this assumption was so prevalent within the three major world views in his time: Epicurianism, Stoicism, and Academic Skepticism. We will then examine the history of Augustine’s liberation from his darkness of unknowing. Hegel on Absolute Spirit. Hegel points out that there is little emphasis upon the consciousness of God and of God's objective essence; but rather so much more on the subjective side of religion, i.e., of God's indwelling in us. He attempts to show that the whole of history is a process of the actualization of the spirit whose final stages are realized through a progression of art, religion, and philosophy. Spiritual liberation for him consists of authenticating and gaining concrete determination of the actuality of the spirit (1, 317). This paper explains this unique doctrine of Hegel and responses to these concepts by Kant, Marx and Kierkegaard. Kant on Things in Themselves. What is that thing called a butterfly? Does its 'thingness' include all of its history - when it was a larva; a caterpillar; where it traveled; what flowers it likes; etc.? Or does it only include the properties we obtain from it in an instantaneous slice in time and space? What about an inanimate object? Surely there is no serious philosophical question about a rock's thingness. But what was it say one billion years ago - perhaps molten material under the earth's surface? The question about 'what is a thing?' is as old as the beginning of Western philosophy. Heidegger claims that the determination of the thingness of the thing is Kant's metaphysical center; it is not just a by-product of his philosophy (4, 55). This paper explores (1) the background leading up to Kant's concept of the 'thing in itself'; (2) different ways of thinking about things; (3) how Kant distinguishes sensible knowledge from intellectual knowledge; (4) Kant's version of idealism; and finally (5) why he needs this doctrine on the thing. Instrumentalism. Should the goal of scientific inquiry be realism or instrumentalism? A realist (hard core) would say that any scientific discipline is trying to get to the true reality of the universe (an attempt to do this). E.g. goal of atomic theory is to get at the true description of the atom. Truth in reference to description about the true construction of the atom; positivists would say this is a pseudo problem. Positivist will be skeptical about whether assumptions of a theory will be true. Predictive accuracy is important; e.g. Ptolemy's astronomic view of a stationary earth - gave 'accurate' predictions of the motions of the planets. An instrumentalist may say "it is O.K. if you talk about epicycles and such, but I do not have to believe that the planet is really doing all of those things; as long as your theory is a good prediction about what will happen." I.e. they have an agnostic attitude about entities which they can not observe. This paper will explain the main flaw with Schwartz' criticisms of classical economics by projecting what Friedman's response to those criticisms would be in terms of the instrumentalism in his essay "The Methodology of Positive Economics". Then we will take a look at a more provocative example of instrumentalist ideology in Dostoevsky's "Grand Inquisitor". aaa. bbb
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